Social learning theories assert that human knowledge is constructed mainly through interaction with others and the environment. Dr. Michael Orey (Laureate Education, Program 8, 2009) tells us that social learning theory originated with Lev Vygotsky, who coined the term “Zone of Proximal Development,” or ZPD, to describe the current stage of a person’s ability to learn based on previously attained knowledge. Vygotsky declared that in order to expand one’s ZPD, there must be interaction between the learner and a “More Knowledgeable Other” or MKO. This MKO may be a parent, teacher, peer, or even a computer. Under the social learning theory, interaction with any person or object in the learner’s environment constitutes social interaction.
There are a variety of educational technology tools that allow teachers to implement social learning practices in their instruction. Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) draw attention to some of these tools that can be applied to cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is an educational approach that allows students to work collectively in groups on tasks or projects to improve their learning. Of particular interest to me were the suggestions for using multimedia tools to create videos. This is a project I use in my eighth grade algebra classes. Working in groups of three or four, students choose an algebra topic and then write a skit, song, or advertisement which is filmed and edited for the purpose of teaching others that topic. The rubric and breakdown of group roles/tasks provided by Pitler et al. (2007) are very well done, and I look forward to adding some of their ideas to the materials I have already created.
Cooperative learning can also be achieved with people outside the students’ classroom through interactive websites like Teen Second Life and the JASON Project which create virtual communities for exploration and collaboration. Other tools allow for online collaborative organizing using shared calendars, bookmarks, documents, chat, and more. These tools allow learning groups to organize and complete projects from anywhere they have Internet access. Hargis and Wilcox (2008) collaborated from their respective offices in California and Florida to complete on their online journal article entitled Ubiquitous, Free, and Efficient Online Collaboration Tools for Teaching and Learning. I would recommend this article as an excellent resource for understanding how Google organizing tools work as well as how Skype, the online communcations software, and Second Life, the virtual community named earlier, work and can be put to use in the classroom. Students using these types of resources are exposed to an unlimited number of opportunities for collaboration.
These instructional strategies correlate directly with the principles of social learning theories by allowing learners to use technology to interact with others to expand their knowledge. As cited by Pitler et al. (2007), Wong and Wong made an excellent observation when they said, “Cooperative learning is not so much learning to cooperate as it is cooperating to learn” (p. 143.)
References
Hargis, J., & Wilcox, S. (2008, October). Ubiquitous, free, and efficient online collaboration tools for teaching and learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE), 9(4), 9–17. Retrieved March 24, 2010, from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdf?vid=3&hid=105&sid=143437fa-ffed-4d37-80df-665c1877c06d%40sessionmgr113
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning, theory, instruction, and technology. [DVD]. Baltimore: Author.
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wednesday, March 31, 2010
Wednesday, March 24, 2010
Constructivism in Practice
We are taught by Dr. Michael Orey (Laureate Education, Program 7, 2009) that constructivism is “a theory of knowledge stating that each individual actively constructs his or her own meaning.” Building on this, he suggests that for educators, this theory is not as important as that of constructionism which states that “people learn best when they build an external artifact or something they can share with others.” Constructionism is, therefore, an extension of constructivism.
One way that a student can actively construct his or her own meaning is by developing and testing a hypothesis about a chosen topic. This is a foundation for learning in the field of science, but Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) suggest that this tactic can be used in all subjects and have presented methods for doing so using educational technology. Their examples highlight spreadsheet software, data collection tools, and web resources.
One of the key features of spreadsheet software is its ability to perform “what if?” calculations which present the user with varying scenarios based on the manipulation of data. Calculating and comparing savings and investments options is a great application of this tool, although I think this lesson would be more age-appropriate for high school students than fifth graders as was suggested by Pitler et al. (2007). I have used similar applications with students in business classes. For example, freshmen in my Introduction to Business classes used spreadsheets to compile and analyze survey data they gathered from the community about whether there was a need for a teen center in our community, and if so, what its hours should be, where its location should be, and what activities should be offered there. To prepare, analyze, and share a spreadsheet is an example of building an external artifact to be shared with others, a perfect correlation of the principles of constructivist/constructionist learning theories.
Pitler et al. (2007), describe the Internet as a huge data collection tool, which is absolutely true, and is another reason that computers should be more accessible to students on a one-to-one basis. Today I came across a March, 2010, opinion article written by Carl Rose, executive director of the Association of Alaska School Boards. He reports that in the past three years, the State of Alaska, through its Consortium for Digital Learning, has placed 12,000 laptops in the hands of students who are now able to use them in school throughout the day. Participating school districts are reporting that students “are more engaged, exhibit fewer behavior problems, and show improved work habits.” Imagine the data collection these students have access to; imagine the project-and problem-based learning fundamental to constructivism/constructionism that these students are capable of performing; imagine the flexibility and the power afforded to teachers in developing lessons for their students. All students should be so fortunate.
References
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning, theory, instruction, and technology. [DVD]. Baltimore: Author.
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Rose, C. (2010, March 19). My turn: prepare our kids for the future: invest in digital learning. Juneau Empire. Retrieved March 24, 2010, from http://www.juneauempire.com/stories/031910/opi_592882455.shtml
One way that a student can actively construct his or her own meaning is by developing and testing a hypothesis about a chosen topic. This is a foundation for learning in the field of science, but Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) suggest that this tactic can be used in all subjects and have presented methods for doing so using educational technology. Their examples highlight spreadsheet software, data collection tools, and web resources.
One of the key features of spreadsheet software is its ability to perform “what if?” calculations which present the user with varying scenarios based on the manipulation of data. Calculating and comparing savings and investments options is a great application of this tool, although I think this lesson would be more age-appropriate for high school students than fifth graders as was suggested by Pitler et al. (2007). I have used similar applications with students in business classes. For example, freshmen in my Introduction to Business classes used spreadsheets to compile and analyze survey data they gathered from the community about whether there was a need for a teen center in our community, and if so, what its hours should be, where its location should be, and what activities should be offered there. To prepare, analyze, and share a spreadsheet is an example of building an external artifact to be shared with others, a perfect correlation of the principles of constructivist/constructionist learning theories.
Pitler et al. (2007), describe the Internet as a huge data collection tool, which is absolutely true, and is another reason that computers should be more accessible to students on a one-to-one basis. Today I came across a March, 2010, opinion article written by Carl Rose, executive director of the Association of Alaska School Boards. He reports that in the past three years, the State of Alaska, through its Consortium for Digital Learning, has placed 12,000 laptops in the hands of students who are now able to use them in school throughout the day. Participating school districts are reporting that students “are more engaged, exhibit fewer behavior problems, and show improved work habits.” Imagine the data collection these students have access to; imagine the project-and problem-based learning fundamental to constructivism/constructionism that these students are capable of performing; imagine the flexibility and the power afforded to teachers in developing lessons for their students. All students should be so fortunate.
References
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning, theory, instruction, and technology. [DVD]. Baltimore: Author.
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Rose, C. (2010, March 19). My turn: prepare our kids for the future: invest in digital learning. Juneau Empire. Retrieved March 24, 2010, from http://www.juneauempire.com/stories/031910/opi_592882455.shtml
Wednesday, March 17, 2010
Cognitivism in Practice
To the cognitivist, learning is the result of unseen mental operations that occur as information is accepted, processed, stored, and used by the brain (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008). Dr. Michael Orey (Laureate Education, Program 5, 2009) tells us that as educators, we should understand several things about this information processing theory as it relates to our effectiveness as teachers. First, because information enters the brain through multiple senses, we should engage our students in multi-sensory presentations, using sights, sounds, and even smells for greater impact. Second, short-term memory is capable of processing 7 plus-or-minus 2 pieces of information at one time. Therefore, it is important to deliver only a manageable amount of information at one time. Third, Paivio’s dual-coding hypothesis tells us that presenting text and images simultaneously will cause the brain to store and recall information more effectively. Next, elaboration, or the ability to create a mental connection between new and previously learned material, is a key means of storing information in long-term memory. Finally, we should take advantage of episodic learning, or learning which creates episodes or experiences which will be stored in long-term memory.
With these things in mind, I have considered the teaching strategies presented in this week’s resources in Walden University's EDUC 6711, Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Each strategy highlights the use of technology as a tool for enhancing learning. The question is, “how do these technology strategies correlate with the principles of cognitive learning theories?” As Robertson, Elliot, and Robinson (2007) suggest, cognitivists look for ways in which the application of technology allows students to learn “with” computers in a cognitive fashion, rather than “from” computers in a behaviorist fashion (p. 2).
There are several excellent suggested uses of technology that engage students in multi-sensory presentations or that honor Paivio’s dual-coding hypothesis. I would like to try some of the ideas of Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007). They recommend the use of specialized software such as Inspiration for visually organizing and brainstorming information and ideas. The software, rich in graphics and text, allows students to build webs, maps, and diagrams for assimilating and expanding their knowledge. The authors also illustrate ways to combine text and graphics in note taking using applications like Microsoft Word and PowerPoint. In the past, I have had students outline chapters in their textbooks using Word, but it had never occurred to me to have them add graphics to those outlines for a more powerful effect on their learning.
For suggestions on keeping information manageable, there are great examples presented by Robertson, Elliot, and Robinson (2007) which use spreadsheet and database applications as information organizers. In my class discussion post this week, I referred to the use of spreadsheets as a way to improve a lesson in which my students calculate the cost per unit of the ingredients required to bake chocolate chip cookies. In addition to the benefits I discussed in my post, the spreadsheet accomplishes the goal of organizing and storing information so that short-term memory will not be overloaded with more than it can handle at one time.
In cognitivist learning theories, the idea of making mental connections between new and previously learned material is an important one. Computer-generated concept maps are an ideal tool for allowing students to make those connections. Novak and Canas (2008) provide us with great detail about the theory behind concept maps, and how to make and use them. After viewing three or four online concept mapping sites, it will be interesting to choose one and put it to use in this week’s application assignment, as this is a tool with which I am not familiar.
Finally, in this week’s video (Laureate Education, Program 6, 2009), there is a presentation spotlighting the use of a virtual field trip to create an episodic learning experience related to the assassination of President Lincoln. Through the use of digital photography and video clips, virtual field trips are an effective way to use technology to “take” students to places they might otherwise never visit. Although the visits are experienced online, they can be far more effective as long-term memory builders than books containing text and limited graphics.
References
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning, theory, instruction, and technology. [DVD]. Baltimore: Author.
Lever-Duffy, J. & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Novak, J. D. & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved March 11, 2010, from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved March 11, 2010, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cognitive_Tools.
With these things in mind, I have considered the teaching strategies presented in this week’s resources in Walden University's EDUC 6711, Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Each strategy highlights the use of technology as a tool for enhancing learning. The question is, “how do these technology strategies correlate with the principles of cognitive learning theories?” As Robertson, Elliot, and Robinson (2007) suggest, cognitivists look for ways in which the application of technology allows students to learn “with” computers in a cognitive fashion, rather than “from” computers in a behaviorist fashion (p. 2).
There are several excellent suggested uses of technology that engage students in multi-sensory presentations or that honor Paivio’s dual-coding hypothesis. I would like to try some of the ideas of Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007). They recommend the use of specialized software such as Inspiration for visually organizing and brainstorming information and ideas. The software, rich in graphics and text, allows students to build webs, maps, and diagrams for assimilating and expanding their knowledge. The authors also illustrate ways to combine text and graphics in note taking using applications like Microsoft Word and PowerPoint. In the past, I have had students outline chapters in their textbooks using Word, but it had never occurred to me to have them add graphics to those outlines for a more powerful effect on their learning.
For suggestions on keeping information manageable, there are great examples presented by Robertson, Elliot, and Robinson (2007) which use spreadsheet and database applications as information organizers. In my class discussion post this week, I referred to the use of spreadsheets as a way to improve a lesson in which my students calculate the cost per unit of the ingredients required to bake chocolate chip cookies. In addition to the benefits I discussed in my post, the spreadsheet accomplishes the goal of organizing and storing information so that short-term memory will not be overloaded with more than it can handle at one time.
In cognitivist learning theories, the idea of making mental connections between new and previously learned material is an important one. Computer-generated concept maps are an ideal tool for allowing students to make those connections. Novak and Canas (2008) provide us with great detail about the theory behind concept maps, and how to make and use them. After viewing three or four online concept mapping sites, it will be interesting to choose one and put it to use in this week’s application assignment, as this is a tool with which I am not familiar.
Finally, in this week’s video (Laureate Education, Program 6, 2009), there is a presentation spotlighting the use of a virtual field trip to create an episodic learning experience related to the assassination of President Lincoln. Through the use of digital photography and video clips, virtual field trips are an effective way to use technology to “take” students to places they might otherwise never visit. Although the visits are experienced online, they can be far more effective as long-term memory builders than books containing text and limited graphics.
References
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning, theory, instruction, and technology. [DVD]. Baltimore: Author.
Lever-Duffy, J. & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Novak, J. D. & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved March 11, 2010, from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved March 11, 2010, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cognitive_Tools.
Wednesday, March 10, 2010
Behaviorism in Practice
During the next several weeks of my graduate work at Walden University, I will be studying learning theories and how they apply to the field of educational technology. This week’s focus is on behaviorism, the theory that states that all learning is the result of responses to external stimuli (Smith, 1999). Behaviorists assert that “the learner acquires behaviors, skills, and knowledge in response to the rewards, punishments, or withheld responses associated with them” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p. 15). Understanding and managing child behavior is critical to effective teaching.
As Standridge (2002) points out, educators have long applied strategies (stimuli) such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of some desired behavior (response). Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) share ideas for using technology to manage student behavior. One example uses a student spreadsheet to chart data showing the correlation between personal effort and grades. Another uses an online survey built by the teacher to collect student data related to effort and achievements. The advantage of these tools is that they allow students to see visual representations of the results of their own effort (or lack thereof.) The teacher may use this data to then put the spotlight on reinforcing effort, a type of behaviorist strategy.
The visual representation provided by technology can be very powerful, but its real effectiveness, in my opinion, is dependent upon an underlying question: what motivates the child? V. Jones and L. Jones (2007) cite Eccles and Wigfield’s idea that there are three types of motivators. There is intrinsic value, which in this case, means that for some children, there is natural enjoyment gained from studying and learning. Second, there is attainment value, which means that the child looks for some type of achievement or notoriety for his or her efforts, and third, there is utility value, which means that the child expects his or her effort to yield some benefit for future personal goals. Eccles and Wigfield assert that “teachers need to ensure that at least one type of value is present if students are to be motivated by the task” (V. Jones & L. Jones, 2007, p. 248). From a behaviorist perspective then, the challenge lies in determining which type of strategy, or external stimulus, will bring about the desired behavior, or improved effort, resulting in improved achievement.
Other educational technology is more naturally suited to the underlying principles of the behaviorist learning theory. In an online drill and practice environment, for example, students answer questions and are supplied with instant feedback (stimuli) to reinforce a desired response. Educational software companies have created effective drill and practice programs for a wide range of concepts. Learning to keyboard with singing, dancing chickens (see Dance Mat Typing) is generally more fun for children than listening to a teacher call out, “a…s…d…f...j…k…l…” Playing a math game that simulates a video game is certainly more appealing to most children than sitting at a desk solving the same problems with paper and pencil.
Another point worthy of mention is that textbook companies have taken advantage of educational technology in the form of online tutorials and games to supplement their print materials. In the past, my students have played online games for learning vocabulary in their Introduction to Business courses, and they have taken practice quizzes to prepare for upcoming tests. Currently, I teach 7th – 9th grade math. Our math department will be selecting a new Algebra I textbook this spring and online resources for students will be a consideration in our selection.
References
Jones, V., & Jones, L. (2007). Comprehensive classroom management: creating communities of support and solving problems (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Lever-Duffy, J. & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Smith, M. K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved March 9, 2010 from www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm.
Standridge, M.. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved March 7, 2010, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
As Standridge (2002) points out, educators have long applied strategies (stimuli) such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of some desired behavior (response). Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) share ideas for using technology to manage student behavior. One example uses a student spreadsheet to chart data showing the correlation between personal effort and grades. Another uses an online survey built by the teacher to collect student data related to effort and achievements. The advantage of these tools is that they allow students to see visual representations of the results of their own effort (or lack thereof.) The teacher may use this data to then put the spotlight on reinforcing effort, a type of behaviorist strategy.
The visual representation provided by technology can be very powerful, but its real effectiveness, in my opinion, is dependent upon an underlying question: what motivates the child? V. Jones and L. Jones (2007) cite Eccles and Wigfield’s idea that there are three types of motivators. There is intrinsic value, which in this case, means that for some children, there is natural enjoyment gained from studying and learning. Second, there is attainment value, which means that the child looks for some type of achievement or notoriety for his or her efforts, and third, there is utility value, which means that the child expects his or her effort to yield some benefit for future personal goals. Eccles and Wigfield assert that “teachers need to ensure that at least one type of value is present if students are to be motivated by the task” (V. Jones & L. Jones, 2007, p. 248). From a behaviorist perspective then, the challenge lies in determining which type of strategy, or external stimulus, will bring about the desired behavior, or improved effort, resulting in improved achievement.
Other educational technology is more naturally suited to the underlying principles of the behaviorist learning theory. In an online drill and practice environment, for example, students answer questions and are supplied with instant feedback (stimuli) to reinforce a desired response. Educational software companies have created effective drill and practice programs for a wide range of concepts. Learning to keyboard with singing, dancing chickens (see Dance Mat Typing) is generally more fun for children than listening to a teacher call out, “a…s…d…f...j…k…l…” Playing a math game that simulates a video game is certainly more appealing to most children than sitting at a desk solving the same problems with paper and pencil.
Another point worthy of mention is that textbook companies have taken advantage of educational technology in the form of online tutorials and games to supplement their print materials. In the past, my students have played online games for learning vocabulary in their Introduction to Business courses, and they have taken practice quizzes to prepare for upcoming tests. Currently, I teach 7th – 9th grade math. Our math department will be selecting a new Algebra I textbook this spring and online resources for students will be a consideration in our selection.
References
Jones, V., & Jones, L. (2007). Comprehensive classroom management: creating communities of support and solving problems (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Lever-Duffy, J. & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Smith, M. K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved March 9, 2010 from www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm.
Standridge, M.. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved March 7, 2010, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
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